About the Journal

The YSU Journal of International Affairs (YSUJIA) is a peer-reviewed academic journal fostering debate and dialogue on international affairs across humanities and social sciences, including international relations, international history, international law, international political economy, diplomacy, and foreign policies. It aims to link scholars and policymakers while encouraging innovative, interdisciplinary contributions that broaden the scope of current scholarship.

Current Issue

Vol. 1 No. 2 (2025)
View Vol. 1 No. 2 (2025)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46991/jia.2025.1.2
Published: 10.12.2025

Full Issue

Editorial Foreword

Articles

  • Articles

    A Tale of Two States: Explaining the Divergent Outcomes of the EU Soft-Transformative Power in Albania and Georgia

    Adrian Brisku, Klodiana Beshku
    View PDF
    Abstract

    Although the EU has recently shifted toward a more “geopolitical” approach, it has long relied on its normative and transformative soft power to drive political and economic reforms in aspiring member states. However, the success of this approach has varied considerably, particularly between the Western Balkan candidates and the states recently granted candidate status—Ukraine, Georgia, and Moldova. This article compares the EU’s success in exercising soft power in Albania with its struggles in Georgia. The Albanian government has embraced both democratic and acquis-related conditionalities and has agreed with the European Commission on a roadmap to conclude negotiations by 2027, while Georgia’s government has frozen its own path toward opening negotiations. Employing a comparative approach, the analysis examines factors such as government compliance, geopolitical contexts, and external influences, with a special focus on Russia’s role in shaping anti-EU narratives in Georgia. The article argues that strong public support, compliance with EU conditionalities, and the lack of a compelling geopolitical alternative explain the EU’s success in Albania. In Georgia, by contrast, strong public backing has not translated into progress: selective or outright non-compliance, the influence of Russian hard and sharp power, and elite-driven Euroscepticism have weakened the EU’s leverage.

    References

    Abazi, Enika. “Albania: New Geopolitics and Shifting Linkages.” In The Western Balkans in the World: Linkages and Relations with Non-Western Countries, edited by Florian Bieber and Nikolaos Tzifakis, 170–89. London: Routledge, 2020.

    “Albania Renames Street in Capital Tirana as Free Ukraine.” Reuters, March 6, 2022. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/albania-renames-street-capital-tirana-free-ukraine-2022-03-06/.

    “Albania’s Progress in Accession Talks Can’t Mask the EU’s ‘Acrobatics’ on the Rule of Law,” The New Union Post, June 3, 2024. https://newunionpost.eu/2025/06/03/albania-eu-accession-negotiations-rama/.

    Anderlini, Michel V. “Implementation is the Hardest Word: Explaining Georgia’s (Non)-Compliance with the European Union Acquis.” Problems of Post-Communism 71, no. 5 (2024): 446–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/10758216.2023.2245546.

    Beshku, Klodiana. “The Albanian Relationship with Greece and Turkey: Perception and Reality in the Framework of the Foreign Policy Partnership.” Research Paper for the Centre of Excellence, Albanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, July 2015.

    Beshku, Klodiana. “The EU as an Actor of Normative Power in the Western Balkans After 2018: The Case of Kosovo, Albania and North Macedonia.” Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 14, no. 2 (2023). https://doi.org/10.36941/mjss-2023-0013.

    Beshku, Klodiana. The (Geo)politics of Democracy in Albania (2025). EUI, RSC, Research Project Report, Global Governance Programme, Southeastern Europe, Country Report, no. 5. Florence: European University Institute, 2025. https://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/78198.

    Beshku, Klodiana, and Orjana Mullisis. “The European Union as a Reforming Power in the Western Balkans: The Case of Albania.” Journal of Liberty and International Affairs 4, no. 2 (2018). https://e-jlia.com/index.php/jlia/article/view/121/112.

    Bialasiewicz, Luiza. “What’s ‘Left’ for a ‘Geopolitical Europe’.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 48 (2023): 826–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/tran.12636.

    BiEPAG. “Public Opinion Poll in the Western Balkans on the EU Integration.” BiEPAG, November 8, 2021. https://biepag.eu/news/public-opinion-poll-in-the-western-balkans-on-the-eu-integration/.

    Blackburn, Gavin. “Kallas Warns Albania of Complex Reforms but Says Its Future Is in the EU.” Euronews, April 8, 2025. https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2025/04/08/kallas-warns-albania-of-complex-reforms-but-says-its-future-is-in-the-eu.

    Bolkvadze, Ketevan. “Cherry Picking EU Conditionality: Selective Compliance in Georgia’s Hybrid Regimes.” Europe-Asia Studies 68, no. 3 (2016): 409–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/09668136.2016.1154138.

    Börzel, Tanja. Why Non-Compliance: The Politics of Law in the European Union. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2021.

    Brisku, Adrian. Bittersweet Europe: Albanian and Georgian Discourses on Europe, 1878-2008. New York, Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2013.

    Brisku, Adrian. “Empires of Conquest and Civilization in Georgian Political and Intellectual Discourses since Late Nineteenth Century.” Intersections.EEJSP 2, no. 2 (2016): 32–43.

    Council of the European Union. Enlargement and Stabilisation and Association Process: Council Conclusions. June 26, 2018. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/35863/st10555-en18.pdf.

    Del Re, Emanuela C. “The Future of Albania between Migrations and European Strategies.” Current Politics and Economics of Europe 24, no. 1/2 (2013): 23–40.

    Delegation of the European Union to Georgia. “The European Union and Georgia.” September 7, 2023. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/georgia/european-union-and-georgia_en?utm.

    DMR News. “‘Only a Unified Europe Can Stop Putin’: EU Chief Marta Kos Issues Stark Warning to Russia.” YouTube video, 1:15. November 4, 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=27R6Ns7HRrE.

    Ekman, Alice. China and the Battle of Coalitions: The ‘Circle of Friends’ Vs the Indo-Pacific Strategy. Paris: EUISS, 2022.

    European Commission. Albania 2020 Report. Brussels: European Commission, 2020.

    European Commission. Albania 2021 Report. Brussels: European Commission, 2021.

    European Commission. Albania 2022 Report. Brussels: European Commission, 2022.

    European Commission. Albania 2023 Report. Brussels: European Commission, 2023.

    European Commission. Albania 2024 Report. Brussels: European Commission, 2024.

    European Commission. Albania 2025 Report. Brussels: European Commission, 2025.

    European Commission. “Press Release, ‘A More Credible, Dynamic, Predictable, and Political EU Accession Process - Commission Lays out its Proposals Brussels.’” February 5, 2020. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/api/files/document/print/en/ip_20_181/IP_20_181_EN.pdf.

    European Commission. “Statement on the Law on Transparency of Foreign Influence.” May 28, 2024. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/statement_24_2945.

    European Union External Action. EU and Georgia Adopt Revised Association Agenda. November 21, 2017. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/node/35934_en?utm.

    European Union External Action. “Georgia: Statement by the Spokesperson on the Legislative Package on ‘Family Values and Protection of Minors.’” September 4, 2024. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/georgia-statement-spokesperson-legislative-package-family-values-and-protection-minors_en.

    European Western Balkans. “Russian Representative to EU invites N. Macedonia and Albania to join EEU instead.” October 30, 2019. https://europeanwesternbalkans.com/2019/10/30/russian-representative-to-eu-invites-n-macedonia-and-albania-to-join-eeu-instead/.

    Fishta, Gjergj. Illumination: Analysis, Polemics, Chronicles. Tirana: GEER, 2000. in Albanian: [Fishta, Gjergj. Përndritje: Analiza, Polemika, Kronika. Tiranë: GEER, 2000].

    Gamrekeli, I., and I. Tsintsadze. “Herbert Markuze – Kapitalizmis Meabdjre.” Sakartvelos Komunisti, no. 1 (1972): 49–53.

    Goga, Harilla. Albania Amidst Today's International Developments. Tirana: Dituria, 1999. in Albanian: [Goga, Harilla. Shqipëria mes Zhvillimeve të Sotme Ndërkombëtare. Tiranë: Dituria, 1999].

    Grabbe, Heather. The EU’s Transformative Power: Europeanisation through Conditionality in Central and Eastern Europe. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.

    Grabbe, Heather. “Six Lessons of Enlargement Ten Years On: The EU’s Transformative Power in Retrospect and Prospect.” Journal of Common Market Studies 52 (2014): 40–56.

    Helleiner, Eric. “Economic Globalization’s Polycrisis.” International Studies Quarterly 68, no. 2 (June 2024): 1–9.

    Hobsbawm, Eric. The Age of Empire: 1875-1914. London: Abacus, 1987.

    Irrera, Daniela, “Non-State Actors and Conflict Management in Proxy Wars,” Oxford Research Encyclopaedia of International Studies, June 28, 2021. https://oxfordre.com/internationalstudies/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.001.0001/acrefore-9780190846626-e-641.

    Irrera, Daniela. “[Title to be Supplied].” In Adapting to Contestation, edited by Doris Wydra, Klodiana Beshku, and Klaudia Koxha. Palgrave: forthcoming.

    Jano, Dorian. “Albania Moving from Security Receiver to Security Provider.” In Peace and Security in the Western Balkans: A Local Perspective, edited by Nemanja Džuverović and Věra Stojarová, 61–76. London: Routledge, 2023.

    Jano, Dorian. The Europeanization of the Western Balkans. Saarbrucken: VDM, 2010.

    Jones, Stephen F. Socialism in Georgian Colours: The European Road to Social Democracy, 1883-1917. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005.

    Kajsiu, Bledi. “Albanian Democratization between Europeanisation and Neoliberalism.” In Albania in the Next Ten Years: Envisioning the Future, edited by Albert Rakipi, 29–45. Tiranë: AIIS, 2012.

    Kakabadze, Zurab. Philosophiuri Saubrebi [Philosophical Conversations]. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo, 1998.

    Kakachia, Kornely, and Shota Kakabadze. “Beyond Cyber and Disinformation: Russian Hybrid Warfare Tactics in Georgia.” In Russian Warfare and Influence: States in the Intersection between East and West, edited by Nicklas Nilsson and Mikael Weissmann, 131–48. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2024.

    Kakachia, Kornely, Bidzina Lebanidze, and Shota Kakabadze. “Transactional Hedging versus Value-Based Hedging: How Small Frontline States Balance between European Integration and Russian Influence.” European Security 33, no. 4 (2024): 594–614. https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2024.2388638.

    Lehne, Stephan. “How the EU Can Survive in a Geopolitical Age.” Carnegie Europe, February 2020.

    Mandacı, Nazif, and Elona Rusi Karacalarlı. “Gulf Region and Western Balkans: A Current History of Interregional Relations.” Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi 19, no. 3 (2018): 491–514. https://doi.org/10.16953/deusosbil.288136.

    Michalski, Anna. “The EU as a Soft Power: The Force of Persuasion.” In The New Public Diplomacy: Studies in Diplomacy and International Relations, edited by Jan Melissen, 124–44. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.

    Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs of Albania. “Bilateral Relations between Albania and Russia.” August 22, 2022. https://punetejashtme.gov.al/en/newsroom/marredheniet-shqiperi-rusi/.

    Mitsishvili, I., ed. Pikrebi Sakartveloze [Thoughts on Georgia]. Tbilisi: Gamomtsemloba “Intelekti,” 2006.

    Nakashidze, Malkhaz. “Georgia’s Progress in Implementation of Fundamentals of the EU Accession Process.” EUI, RSC, Working Paper 48. Florence: European University Institute, 2024. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/77383.

    Nesho, Agim. The Overlapping Axes of Albanian Foreign Policy: For an Active Policy of the 21st Century. Tirana: UET PRESS, 2013. in Albanian: [Nesho, Agim. Boshtet e Mbivendosura të Politikës së Jashtme Shqiptare: Për Një Politikë Aktive të Shek. XXI. Tiranë: UET PRESS, 2013].

    Nielsen, Kristian L. “EU Soft Power and the Capability-Expectation Gap.” Journal of Contemporary European Research 9, no. 5 (2013): 723–39. https://doi.org/10.30950/jcer.v9i5.479.

    Noutcheva, Gergana. “Fake, Partial and Imposed Compliance: The Limits of the EU's Normative Power in the Western Balkans.” Journal of European Public Policy 16, no. 7 (2009): 1065–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501760903226872.

    O’Brennan, John, and Esmeralda Gassie. “From Stabilization to Consolidation: Albanian State Capacity and Adaptation to European Union Rules.” Journal of Balkans and Near East Studies 11, no. 1 (2009): 61–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/19448950902724448.

    Prague Security Studies Institute. Albania amidst the External Actors’ Influence: The Open Balkan Initiative: A Russian Trojan Horse or a Faster Approach to Regional Cooperation? June 2023. https://www.pssi.cz/publications/104-albania-amidst-the-external-actors-influence-the-open-balkan-initiative-a-russian-trojan-horse-or-a-faster-approach-to-regional-cooperation.

    Ragin, Charles C. The Comparative Method: Moving Beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.

    Rama, Edi. “We are in love with Europe / Rama Convinced: They Do not have Time, but They Are Forced to Marry Us!” March 15, 2022. https://www.imalbania.com/kosova/we-are-in-love-with-europe-rama-convinced-they-do-not-have-time-but-they-are-forced-to-marry-us/.

    “Rama in Israel: Albania Supports Two-State Solution, but not with Hamas.” Telegrafi, April 7, 2025. https://telegrafi.com/en/Rama-in-Israel-Albania-supports-two-state-solution-but-not-Hamas/.

    Roseni, Lisian. “Contesting EU Labour Norms in Albania: Between Compliance and Structural Constraints,” in New Dynamics of Contestation in EU-Western Balkans Relations Adapting to Protracted Accession Processes under Conditions of Intensified Geopolitical Rivalry, edited by Doris Wydra, Klodiana Beshku, and Klaudia Koxha (Palgrave: forthcoming 2026).

    Shehu, Mehmet. "On the Implementation of Tasks Regarding the Further Revolutionization of Our School." The Voice of the People. April 12, 1968. in Albanian: [Shehu, Mehmet. "Për Zbatimin e Detyrave në Lidhje me Revolucionarizimin e Mëtejshm të Shkollës Sonë." Zëri i Popullit. 12 Prill 1968].

    Sirbiladze, Irakli. “How to Help Georgia out of Its Growing Democracy Crisis.” GMF Transatlantic Foundation, Policy Brief. June 2025. https://www.gmfus.org/sites/default/files/2025-06/Sirbiladze%20-%20Georgia%20-%20brief.pdf.

    Story, Sommerville, ed. The Memoirs of Ismail Kemal Bey. London: Constable and Company, 1920.

    Tabatadze, Sandro, and Nika Gigauri. “Eurosceptic Games in the EU Candidate States: The Case of Georgia.” Southeast and Black Sea Studies (2025): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2025.2473171.

    Taylor, Alice. “Albanian Political Parties Spar over Russian Funding Allegations.” Euractiv, September 12, 2022. https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/short_news/albanian-political-parties-spar-over-russian-funding-allegations/.

    Toria, Malkhaz. “Georgia’s Turn toward Illiberalism and the ‘Uses and Abuses’ of History.” Democracy Seminar, October 22, 2024. https://democracyseminar.newschool.org/essays/georgias-turn-toward-illiberalism-and-the-uses-and-abuses-of-history/.

    Tsuladze, Lia, Nika Chitadze, and Irakli Chkhaidze. “De-Europeanisation as Discursive Disengagement: Has Georgia ‘Got Lost’ on its Way to European Integration?” Journal of European Integration 46, no. 3 (2024): 393–413. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2023.2278072.

    “UN Overwhelmingly Endorses Two-State Solution Declaration that Condemns Hamas.” Reuters, September 13, 2025. https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/un-overwhelmingly-endorses-two-state-solution-declaration-that-condemns-hamas-2025-09-12/.

    Varma, Tara. “European Strategic Autonomy: The Path to a Geopolitical Europe.” The Washington Quarterly 47, no. 1 (2024): 63–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163660X.2024.2327820.

    Walker, Christopher. “What Is ‘Sharp’ Power.” Journal of Democracy 29, no. 3 (July 2018): 9–23. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2018.0041.

    Xhaferi, Përparim. “The Post-Ottoman Era: A Fresh Start for Bilateral Relations between Albania and Turkey?” Australia and New Zealand Journal of European Studies 9, no. 1 (2017): 42–62.

  • Articles

    Reconstruction and Modernization of National Identity as Catalysts for Stateness: A Post-Soviet Perspective

    Violetta Manukyan
    View PDF
    Abstract

    This article explores the processes of national identity reconstruction and modernization as pivotal drivers in the formation and consolidation of stateness in post-Soviet contexts. Drawing on comparative case studies from selected former Soviet republics, this study analyzes how national identity narratives have been rearticulated and institutionalized to strengthen state legitimacy, foster political cohesion, and enhance sovereign functionality. Methodologically, the article employs a qualitative, comparative political analysis grounded in interpretive institutionalism and constructivist approaches to identity, integrating discourse analysis of official state narratives, policy documents, and public rhetoric with process tracing of post-Soviet nation-building trajectories. The analysis highlights the interplay between historical memory, cultural policy, and state-building strategies. It argues that the modernization of national identity, when grounded in inclusive civic values and responsive governance, substantially enhances a state’s capacity to assert authority and ensure internal stability. By positioning identity not merely as a derivative of statehood but as a strategic instrument in its construction, the article contributes to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underpinning contemporary state-building processes.

    References

    Aasland, Aadne. “Citizenship Status and Social Exclusion in Estonia and Latvia.” Journal of Baltic Studies 33, no. 1 (2002): 57–77.

    Altstadt, Audrey L. Frustrated Democracy in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan. Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2017.

    Asian Development Bank. Labor Migration in Central Asia: Patterns and Prospects. ADB, 2024.

    Brubaker, Rogers. Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe. Cambridge University Press, 1996.

    Coppedge, Michael, Staffan I. Lindberg et al. Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Dataset v13. V-Dem Institute, 2023. https://datafinder.qog.gu.se/dataset/vdem.

    Corley, Felix. “Education and Ethnic Hatred in Azerbaijan.” Forum 18 News Service, 2021.

    Cornell, Svante E. Azerbaijan Since Independence. Routledge, 2017.

    Cummings, Sally. Understanding Central Asia: Politics and Contested Transformations. Routledge, 2012.

    Darden, Keith. Resisting Occupation: Mass Schooling and the Creation of Durable National Loyalties. Princeton University Press, 2021.

    Dave, Bhavna. Kazakhstan: Ethnicity, Language and Power. Routledge, 2007.

    Ehin, Piret. “Political Support in the Baltic States, 1993–2000.” Europe-Asia Studies 59, no. 7 (2007): 977–1000.

    European Commission. Eurobarometer 97.3: Public Opinion in the European Union. Directorate-General for Communication, 2023.

    European Commission. Public Opinion in the European Union: Standard Eurobarometer 98. European Commission, 2023.

    European Social Survey. Round 9 (2018/2019). https://www.europeansocialsurvey.org.

    European Social Survey. Round 10 (2020). https://ess.sikt.no/en/study/172ac431-2a06-41df-9dab-c1fd8f3877e7.

    Freedom House. Nations in Transit: Azerbaijan, 2024. https://freedomhouse.org/country/azerbaijan/nations-transit/2024.

    Freedom House. Nations in Transit: Russia, 2024. https://freedomhouse.org/country/russia/nations-transit/2024.

    Gvalia, Giorgi, Salome Lebanidze, and David S. Siroky. “Neoclassical Realism and Small States: Systemic Constraints and Domestic Filters in Georgia’s Foreign Policy.” East European Politics 35, no. 1 (2019).

    Hale, Henry E. Patronal Politics: Eurasian Regime Dynamics in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press, 2014.

    Human Rights Watch. “Azerbaijan: Discrimination Against Armenians in Education and Media.” World Report 2021.

    Inglehart, Ronald, and Christian Welzel. Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence. Cambridge University Press, 2005.

    Jones, Stephen F. Socialism in Georgian Colors: The European Road to Social Democracy, 1883–1917. Harvard University Press, 2005.

    Kasianov, Georgiy. “The Holodomor and the Politics of Memory in Ukraine after 1991.” In Mass Starvation: The History and Future of Famine, edited by Alex de Waal, 220–43. Polity, 2018.

    King, Charles. The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the Politics of Culture. Stanford University Press, 2000.

    Kudelia, Serhiy. “The Donbas Rift.” Russian Politics and Law 52, no. 5 (2014): 5–27.

    Kudelia, Serhiy. “The Maidan and Beyond: Ukraine’s Identity and Civic Mobilization.” Journal of Democracy 25, no. 3 (2014): 19–34.

    Kulyk, Volodymyr. “War, Language, and Identity in Ukraine.” Post-Soviet Affairs 39, no. 1–2 (2023): 1–23.

    Laruelle, Marlène. Russian Eurasianism: An Ideology of Empire. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012.

    Linz, Juan J., and Alfred Stepan. Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.

    Makarychev, Andrey, and Alexandra Yatsyk. Russia, Ukraine and the EU: Interactions, Policies and Practices. Routledge, 2015.

    Manukyan, Violetta. “From Conflict to Peace? Stateness Assessment of the South Caucasus Countries at the Crossroads of Political Processes from 2017 to 2022.” Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University 2, no. 5 (2023): 11–33.

    Marples, David R. “Color Revolutions: The Belarus Case.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 54, no. 1 (2021): 1–14.

    Marutyan, Harutyun. Iconography of Armenian Identity: The Memory of Genocide and the Karabakh Movement. Gitutyun Publishing House, 2009.

    Melkonian, Eduard. “Memory, History and Identity in Armenian Educational Policy.” Caucasus Survey 4, no. 2 (2016): 120–39.

    Melvin, Neil. “Post-Soviet Migration and the Re-Making of the Central Asian States.” Europe-Asia Studies 48, no. 7 (1996): 1011–39.

    Mestvirishvili, Natia, Maia Mestvirishvili, and Tamar Khoshtaria. “National Identity and Perceptions of Citizenship in Georgia Over the Last Decade.” In Identities and Representations in Georgia from the 19th Century to the Present. De Gruyter Oldenbourg, 2021.

    Migdal, Joel S. Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World. Princeton University Press, 1988.

    Minority Rights Group International. State of the World's Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2023: Georgia. MRGI, 2023.

    Mitchell, Lincoln A. Uncertain Democracy: U.S. Foreign Policy and Georgia’s Rose Revolution. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.

    Olcott, Martha Brill. Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled Promise. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2010.

    Panossian, Razmik. The Armenians: From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars. Columbia University Press, 2006.

    Pettai, Eva-Clarita. Memory and Pluralism in the Baltic States: National Identity, Culture and History after Independence. Routledge, 2016.

    Pew Research Center. “European Public Opinion Three Decades After the Fall of Communism.” October 15, 2019. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/10/15/european-public-opinion-three-decades-after-the-fall-of-communism/.

    Pilkington, Hilary. “Migration, Discourse, and Identity in the Baltic States.” Europe-Asia Studies 51, no. 1 (1999): 77–100.

    Razumkov Centre. “National Identity and Civil Cohesion in Ukraine: Trends 2014–2023.” May 2023. https://razumkov.org.ua/en/research-areas/surveys/identity-of-ukrainian-citizens-trends-of-change-may-2023.

    Reeves, Madeleine. Border Work: Spatial Lives of the State in Rural Central Asia. Cornell University Press, 2014.

    Sasse, Gwendolyn. The Crimea Question: Identity, Transition, and Conflict. Harvard University Press, 2007.

    Schatz, Edward. “Framing the State in Times of Transition: Case Studies in Constitution Making.” Comparative Politics 32, no. 4 (2000): 459–79.

    Schatz, Edward. “The Soft Authoritarian Tool Kit: Agenda-Setting Power in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.” Comparative Politics 41, no. 2 (2009): 203–22.

    Skocpol, Theda. States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China. Cambridge University Press, 1979.

    Smith, David J., et al. The Baltic States and Their Region: New Europe or Old? Routledge, 2002.

    Smith, Graham, et al. Nation-Building in the Post-Soviet Borderlands: The Politics of National Identities. Cambridge University Press, 2002.

    Soifer, Hillel. “State Infrastructural Power: Concept and Measurement Proposals.” Studies in Comparative International Development 43, no. 3–4 (2008): 231–51.

    Suny, Ronald Grigor. “Constructing Primordialism: Old Histories for New Nations.” Journal of Modern History 73, no. 4 (December 2001): 862–96.

    Suny, Ronald Grigor. Looking Toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. Indiana University Press, 1993.

    Suny, Ronald Grigor. “Living in the Hood: Russia, Empire, and Old-New Nationalisms.” In Nationalism and Democracy in the Welfare State, edited by Kjell Goldmann et al., 55–76. Norwegian University Press, 2021.

    Thomson, Robert W. The Armenian Church. Routledge, 1996.

    Tigranyan, Armine. “Erasing Identity: Azerbaijan’s Attack on Artsakh’s Spiritual Heritage.” Regional Post, July 10, 2025.

    Tilly, Charles. Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1992. Blackwell, 1992.

    Tsuladze, Lia. “On Europeanisation, National Sentiments and Confused Identities in Georgia.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 50, no. 2 (June 2017): 125-33.

    Wheatley, Jonathan. “Obstacles Impeding the Regional Integration of the Kvemo Kartli Region of Georgia.” ECMI Working Paper No. 19, 2009.

    White, Stephen, and Ian McAllister. “Belarus, Ukraine and Russia: East or West?” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations 10, no. 2 (2008): 257–71.

    Wilson, Andrew. Belarus: The Last European Dictatorship. Yale University Press, 2011.

    World Bank. Migration and Development Brief 37: Remittances and Development in Armenia. World Bank, 2025.

    World Values Survey. Wave 7 (2017–2022). https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWV7.jsp.

  • Articles

    Manufacturing the Enemy: Armenophobia and the Construction of National Identity in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan

    Anzhela Mnatsakanyan
    View PDF
    Abstract

    This article examines the role of Armenophobia in the construction of national identity in Azerbaijan. It argues that the Azerbaijani national identity has been shaped not through affirmative civic or ethnic principles, but rather through a sustained campaign of “negative nationalism” — a nation-building project defined predominantly by hostility toward the Armenians. Drawing on political discourse analysis, state policy review, and examples from elite rhetoric, the study illustrates how Armenophobia functions as a tool of authoritarian consolidation, ideological substitution, and historical revisionism. The Azerbaijani regime has cultivated an image of Armenians as existential enemies to justify both domestic repression and external aggression, presenting itself as the sole protector of the Azerbaijani nation. The article situates this phenomenon within broader theoretical discussions of ontological insecurity, post-imperial identity crises, and authoritarian statecraft in the post-Soviet space. By framing Armenophobia as a strategic instrument for regime legitimacy and societal mobilization, the study contributes to a deeper understanding of the politics of memory, nationalism by negation, and conflict-driven identity formation in transitional political systems.

    References

    Abbasov, Ilgam, Hulya Delihuseyinoglu, Mariam Pipia, Sergey Rumyansev, and Emil Sanamya. “Ethnic Groups and Conflicts in the South Caucasus and Turkey.” The Caucasus Edition – Journal of Conflict Transformation, February 1, 2016. https://caucasusedition.net/ethnic-groups-and-conflicts-in-the-south-caucasus-and-turkey/.

    Ahmadi, Hamid. The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian Response to Baku's Irredentism. Oxford University Press, 2017.

    Amnesty International. Azerbaijan: No Sign of Hope for the Human Rights Situation in Azerbaijan: Systemic and Serious Breaches of Human Rights Must Be Strongly Condemned. January 23, 2025. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur55/8963/2025/en/ (accessed 13 October 2025).

    Artsakh Human Rights Ombudsman. Interim Public Report on Atrocities Committed by Azerbaijani Military Forces against the Civilian Population of the Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh). Stepanakert, Office of the Human Rights Ombudsman of Artsakh, 2020.

    Beissinger, Mark. Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

    Billig, Michael. Banal Nationalism. Sage, 1995.

    Broers, Laurence. “Perspectives | Augmented Azerbaijan? The Return of Azerbaijani Irredentism.” Eurasianet, August 5, 2021. https://eurasianet.org/perspectives-augmented-azerbaijan-the-return-of-azerbaijani-irredentism.

    Brown, Cameron. “Wanting to Have Their Cake and Their Neighbor’s Too: Azerbaijani Attitudes towards Karabakh and Iranian Azerbaijan.” Middle East Journal, Autumn 2004, 576–96. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4330064.

    Cornell, Svante, Halil Karaveli, and Boris Ajeganov. Azerbaijan’s Formula: Secular Governance and Civic Nationhood. Silk Road Paper, 2016.

    Dekmejian, Hrair, and Hovann Simonian. Troubled Waters: The Geopolitics of the Caspian Region. I.B. Tauris, 2001.

    Elibegova, Anzhela. “Armenophobia in Azerbaijan: Causes and Effects.” EVN Report, May 9, 2017. https://evnreport.com/politics/armenophobia-in-azerbaijan-causes-and-effects/.

    Ergun, Ayça. “Citizenship, National Identity, and Nation-Building in Azerbaijan: Between the Legacy of the Past and the Spirit of Independence.” Nationalities Papers, July 2022. https://doi.org/10.1017/nps.2020.81.

    European External Action Service (EEAS). “Azerbaijan: Statement by the Spokesperson on the Sentencing of Journalists and Political Activists.” June 23, 2025. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/azerbaijan-statement-spokesperson-sentencing-journalists-and-political-activists_en?s=09&%3Bref=oc-media.org&ref=oc-media.org (accessed 13 October 2025).

    European Parliament. “MEPs Denounce Violations of Human Rights and International Law by Azerbaijan.” October 24, 2024. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20241017IPR24740/meps-denounce-violations-of-human-rights-and-international-law-by-azerbaijan (accessed 13 October 2025).

    Football Federation of Armenia (FFA). “FFA Demands to Exclude FK Qarabag from European Club Competitions.” Football Federation of Armenia, October 31, 2020. https://www.ffa.am/en/1604159474/page/3.

    Ghaplanyan, Irina. “Empowering and Engaging Civil Society in Conflict Resolution: The Case of Nagorno-Karabakh.” International Negotiation, January 1, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1163/157180610X488191.

    Goltz, Thomas. Azerbaijan Diary: A Rogue Reporter’s Adventures in an Oil-Rich, War-Torn, Post-Soviet Republic. 1998.

    Goyushov, Altay. “The Language of Azerbaijan: Turkish or Azerbaijani?” Baku Research Institute, September 26, 2018. https://bakuresearchinstitute.org/azerbaijani-turk-dili-yoxsa-az%C9%99rbaycan-dili/.

    Guliyeva, Narmin. “The Evolution of National Identity and Nationalism in Azerbaijan (1900–2018).” Middle East Technical University, September 9, 2022. https://open.metu.edu.tr/handle/11511/99415.

    Hovsepyan, Levon, and Artyom Tonoyan. “Sustaining Conflict: Identity, Ontological (In)Security, and Azerbaijan’s Policy Toward Armenia after the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War.” Small Wars & Insurgencies, March 25, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2025.2480690.

    Human Rights Defender (Ombudsman). Interim Public Report: Atrocities Committed by Azerbaijani Military Forces Against the Civilian Population of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic and Servicemen of the Nagorno Karabakh Defence Army, 2–5 April 2016. April 2016. https://anca.org/assets/graphics/2016/Public-Report-Ombudsman-of-NKR.pdf.

    Human Rights Defender of Armenia and Human Rights Ombudsman of Artsakh. Ad Hoc Public Report: Organized Hate Speech and Animosity Towards Ethnic Armenians in Azerbaijan as Root Causes of Ethnically-Based Torture and Inhuman Treatment by Azerbaijani Armed Forces (September–November 2020). 2020. https://www.ombuds.am/images/files/2032f021fe81176414a649d588ad0e86.pdf.

    Human Rights Defender of the Republic of Armenia. Ad Hoc Public Report: The Azerbaijani Policy of Hatred and Animosity Towards Armenians as Root Causes of Ethnically Motivated Violations of Human Rights: Evidence-Based Analysis of the Post-War Developments. February 2022. https://www.ombuds.am/images/files/ea202a21c5fa032687be862bc5ba7689.pdf.

    “Inauguration Ceremony of Ilham Aliyev Was Held.” Official Website of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, February 14, 2024. https://president.az/en/articles/view/63979.

    Krickel-Choi, Nina. “State Personhood and Ontological Security as a Framework of Existence: Moving beyond Identity, Discovering Sovereignty.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs, August 9, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2022.2108761.

    Laclau, Ernesto. On Populist Reason. Verso, 2005.

    Melkumyan, Roza. “Baku’s Hostility Has Not Abated since the Fall of Nagorno-Karabakh.” Freedom House, November 30, 2023. https://freedomhouse.org/article/bakus-hostility-has-not-abated-fall-nagorno-karabakh.

    Meneshian, George. “Exploring the Azerbaijani National Identity: A Historical Analysis.” Institute of Middle East, Central Asia and Caucasus Studies, February 4, 2021. https://mecacs.wp.st-andrews.ac.uk/2021/exploring-the-azerbaijani-national-identity-a-historical-analysis/.

    Militz, Elisabeth, and Carolin Schurr. “Affective Nationalism: Banalities of Belonging in Azerbaijan.” Political Geography 54 (September 2016): 58–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2015.11.002.

    Mitzen, Jennifer. “Ontological Security in World Politics.” European Journal of International Relations, September 1, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066106067346.

    Mnatsakanyan, Anzhela. “Armenophobia in Azerbaijani schools.” X (formerly Twitter) post, March 26, 2023. https://x.com/ANZHELA_YAN/status/1640037860647616512.

    Mnatsakanyan, Anzhela. “The Territorial Integrity of Azerbaijan Has Nothing in Common with Nagorno-Karabakh.” Greek City Times, November 20, 2020. https://greekcitytimes.com/2020/11/26/azerbaijan-nagorno-karabakh-common.

    Panahova, Lamiya. “One Nation – Two States Indeed? Turkish Soft Power and the National Identity Dynamics in Azerbaijan after the Karabakh War.” The Hague Research Institute, April 2025. https://hagueresearch.org/one-nation-two-states-indeed-turkish-soft-power-and-the-national-identity-dynamics-in-azerbaijan-after-the-karabakh-war/.

    President of Azerbaijan. X (formerly Twitter) post. November 19, 2012.https://x.com/presidentaz/status/270827003521929216.

    Samadov, Bahruz, and Mane Grigoryan. “Formation of Discourses of National Identity in Armenia and Azerbaijan: From the Path to Independence to Nationalist Hegemony.” Journal of Conflict Transformation, September 23, 2022. https://caucasusedition.net/formation-of-discourses-of-national-identity-in-armenia-and-azerbaijan-from-the-path-to-independence-to-nationalist-hegemony/.

    Semerdjian, Elyse. “Gazafication and Genocide by Attrition in Artsakh/Nagorno-Karabakh.” Journal of Genocide Research, July 17, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2024.2377871.

    Schoenfeld, Bruce. “This Ancient Silk Road City Is Now a Modern Marvel.” National Geographic, April 10, 2018. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/photos-pictures-baku.

    Shaffer, Brenda. Borders and Brethren: Iran and the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity. Belfer Center Studies in International Security. MIT Press, 2002.

    Souleimanov, Emil. Understanding Ethnopolitical Conflict: Karabakh, South Ossetia, and Abkhazia Wars Reconsidered. Rethinking Peace and Conflict Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.

    Tabachnik, Maxim. Citizenship, Territoriality, and Post-Soviet Nationhood: The Politics of Birthright Citizenship in Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Moldova. Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.

    Tadevosyan, Suren. “Balancing Powers: Azerbaijan’s National Role Conceptions Amidst Regional and Global Challenges.” Contemporary Eurasia, November 5, 2024, 6–21. https://doi.org/10.52837/2579-2970-2024.13.1-6.

    Tokluoglu, Ceylan. “Definitions of National Identity, Nationalism and Ethnicity in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan in the 1990s.” Ethnic and Racial Studies, August 15, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870500092951.

    Uzer, Umut. “Nagorno-Karabakh in Regional and World Politics: A Case Study for Nationalism, Realism and Ethnic Conflict.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, June 2012. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602004.2012.694668.

    Waal, Thomas de. Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan through Peace and War. New York University Press, 2003.

    Waal, Thomas de. The Caucasus: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018.

    Wiktor-Mach, Dobroslawa. Religious Revival and Secularism in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan. Religion and Society. De Gruyter, 2017.

    World Bank Group. n.d. “Poverty Headcount Ratio at National Poverty Lines (% of Population) – Azerbaijan.” https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=AZ (accessed 13 October 2025).

    Yilmaz, Harun. National Identities in Soviet Historiography: The Rise of Nations under Stalin. Routledge, 2015.

  • Articles

    From Balancing to Active Hedging: The Transformation of Kazakhstan’s Multi-Vector Foreign Policy After 2022

    Fatima Kukeyeva
    View PDF
    Abstract

    The outbreak of the 2022 military crisis in Ukraine significantly redefined Kazakhstan’s geopolitical setting, highlighting the limits of its established foreign policy model and steering it toward a proactive hedging approach emblematic of middle powers. Based on the concepts of equidistant diplomacy and hedging, the article illustrates how Astana simultaneously reduces exposure to any single power center and converts participation in the multilateral forums into economic and political gains. Six hedging tracks are examined: Russian, Chinese, European, American (the United States), Turkic, and Southern (Gulf states), as well as an autonomous transit track represented by the Middle or Trans-Caspian Corridor. Drawing on legislative texts, policy declarations, and development frameworks from 2022–2025, the analysis traces Kazakhstan’s evolution from geographic balancing to rules-based portfolio management of interdependence in trade corridors, capital flows, and regulatory standards, highlighting the ongoing institutional entrenchment of Eurasian regionalism. Although Kazakhstan’s bargaining leverage has expanded, its hedging behavior remains limited by the need to coordinate with the C5 group (the five Central Asian states), manage asymmetries with larger economies, and ensure conformity with the institutional norms of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU).

    References

    Acharya, Amitav. Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia. 3rd ed. Routledge, 2014.

    The Astana Times. “Central Asia, China to Sign $17 Billion in Deals at Astana Business Council.” 2025. https://astanatimes.com/2025/06/central-asia-china-to-sign-17-billion-in-deals-at-astana-business-council/.

    Auyezov, Olzhas. “Shocked by Ukraine War, Russian Neighbor Kazakhstan Looks West.” Reuters, November 17, 2022. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/shocked-by-ukraine-war-russian-neighbour-kazakhstan-looks-west-2022-11-17/.

    Çelik, Yusuf, and Janaka Jayawickrama. “A Win-Win Relationship between China and Kazakhstan: Thinking Beyond Dependency.” Uluslararası Ekonomi, İşletme ve Politika Dergisi 8, no. 2 (2024): 421–441. https://doi.org/10.29216/ueip.1518040.

    Chiacu, Doina, and Katharine Jackson. “U.S. Seeks Answers from Kazakhstan on Need for Russian-Led Troops.” Reuters, January 9, 2022. https://www.reuters.com/world/us-seeks-answers-kazakhstan-need-russian-led-troops-2022-01-09.

    Council of the European Union. “First EU–Central Asia Summit, 4 April 2025.” Meeting page. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/international-summit/2025/04/04/.

    EEAS — Delegation of the European Union to Kazakhstan. “We Celebrated Europe Day Right in the Heart of Astana!” 2025. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/delegations/kazakhstan/we-celebrated-europe-day-right-heart-astana.

    Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the U.S. “Foreign Ministry Spokesperson’s Remarks on Kazakhstan.” January 7, 2022. http://us.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/fyrth/202201/t20220107_10601933.htm.

    ENIC-Kazakhstan. “Key Documents — Bologna Process.” Accessed November 13, 2025. https://enic-kazakhstan.edu.kz/ru/bologna_process/documents. in Russian: [ENIC-Kazakhstan, “Основные документы — Болонский процесс.” Accessed November 13, 2025. https://enic-kazakhstan.edu.kz/ru/bologna_process/documents].

    European Commission. “COP27: European Union Concludes a Strategic Partnership with Kazakhstan on Raw Materials, Batteries and Renewable Hydrogen.” Press release, November 6, 2022. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_6585.

    European Commission. “Global Gateway: €10 Billion Commitment to Invest in Trans-Caspian Transport Corridor Connecting Europe and Central Asia Announced at Investors Forum.” Press release, January 29, 2024. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_501.

    European Commission — Directorate-General for International Partnerships (DG INTPA). “Global Gateway: EU and Central Asian Countries Agree on Building Blocks to Develop the Trans-Caspian Transport Corridor.” January 30, 2024. https://international-partnerships.ec.europa.eu/news-and-events/news/global-gateway-eu-and-central-asian-countries-agree-building-blocks-develop-trans-caspian-transport-2024-01-30_en.

    European Parliament. “European Parliament Resolution of 20 January 2022 on the Situation in Kazakhstan (2022/2513(RSP)).” https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2022-0013_EN.html.

    Goh, Evelyn. Meeting the China Challenge: The U.S. in Southeast Asian Regional Security Strategies. Policy Studies No. 16. East-West Center, 2005.

    Holbraad, Carsten. Middle Powers in International Politics. Macmillan, 1984.

    Inbusiness.kz. “Tokayev: Claims that Kazakhstan has cooled and wants to leave the EAEU and the CSTO are not true.” 2022. https://inbusiness.kz/ru/last/tokaev-razgovory-o-tom-chto-kazahstan-ohladel-i-hochet-vyjti-iz-eaes-i-odkb-ne-sootvetstvuyut-dejstvitelnosti. in Russian: [Inbusiness.kz. “Токаев:Разговоры о том, что Казахстан охладел и хочет выйти из ЕАЭС и ОДКБ, не соответствуют действительности.” 2022. https://inbusiness.kz/ru/last/tokaev-razgovory-o-tom-chto-kazahstan-ohladel-i-hochet-vyjti-iz-eaes-i-odkb-ne-sootvetstvuyut-dejstvitelnosti].

    Ishekenova, Bekzada. “Kazakhstan is working on revising EAEU customs duties.” LS (LSM.kz), January 16, 2025. https://lsm.kz/kazahstan-poshliny-eaes-podrobnosti. in Russian: [Ишекенова, Бекзада. “Казахстан работает над пересмотром таможенных пошлин ЕАЭС.” LS (LSM.kz), 16 января 2025. https://lsm.kz/kazahstan-poshliny-eaes-podrobnosti].

    Keohane, Robert O., and Joseph S. Nye Jr. Power and Interdependence. Little, Brown, 1977.

    Koga, Kei. “Conceptualizing Equidistant Diplomacy in International Relations: The Case of Singapore.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 22, no. 3 (2022): 449–476.

    Kuik, Cheng-Chwee. “Hedging in Post-Pandemic Asia: What, How, and Why?” The Asan Forum, 2020. https://theasanforum.org/hedging-in-post-pandemic-asia-what-how-and-why/.

    Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan. On Control of Specific Goods. No. 172-VII ZRK (December 28, 2022). Adilet (Legal Information System), unofficial translation. https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z2200000172/history.

    Manukyan, Zhak. “The Strategic Role of Central Asia in a Changing World Order: Resources, Logistics, and Competition.” YSU Journal of International Affairs 1, no. 1 (2025): 66–99. https://doi.org/10.46991/jia.2025.1.1.066.

    National Endowment for Democracy (NED). The Big Question: Understanding China’s Sharp Power. 2017. https://www.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Understanding-Chinas-Sharp-Power.pdf.

    Papatolios, Nikos. “Baku–Tbilisi–Kars Railway Is Officially Open Again after Year-Long Closure.” RailFreight.com, May 23, 2024. https://www.railfreight.com/infrastructure/2024/05/23/baku-tbilisi-kars-railway-is-officially-open-again-after-year-long-closure/.

    Putz, Catherine. “CSTO Deploys to Kazakhstan at Tokayev’s Request.” The Diplomat, January 6, 2022. https://thediplomat.com/2022/01/csto-deploys-to-kazakhstan-at-tokayevs-request.

    Qmonitor.kz. “Divorce and Maiden Name: What Will Happen if Kazakhstan Leaves the EAEU and the CSTO.” 2022. https://qmonitor.kz/politics/4023. in Russian: [Qmonitor.kz. “Развод и девичья фамилия: что будет, если Казахстан выйдет из ЕАЭС и ОДКБ.” 2022. https://qmonitor.kz/politics/4023].

    Rail-News.kz. “Prospects for infrastructure development and freight transport discussed by the heads of KTZ and the Urumqi Railway.” 2024. https://rail-news.kz/ru/news/18872-perspektivy-razvitiia-infrastruktury-i-gruzoperevozok-obsudili-rukovoditeli-ktz-i-urumciiskoi-zeleznoi-dorogi. in Russian: [Rail-News.kz. “Перспективы развития инфраструктуры и грузоперевозок обсудили руководители КТЖ и Урумчийской железной дороги.” 2024. https://rail-news.kz/ru/news/18872-perspektivy-razvitiia-infrastruktury-i-gruzoperevozok-obsudili-rukovoditeli-ktz-i-urumciiskoi-zeleznoi-dorogi].

    Railjournal.com. “Kazakhstan Starts Building Third China Link: New Line Will Help Boost Freight Capacity by Two-Thirds by 2027.” Accessed November 13, 2025. https://www.railjournal.com/freight/kazakhstan-starts-building-third-china-link.

    RFE/RL. “China’s Xi Arrives in Kazakhstan for State Visit, SCO Summit.” July 2, 2024. https://www.rferl.org/a/china-xi-visit-kazakhstan-tajikistan-shanghai-coooperation-sco-summit/33018280.html.

    RIA Novosti. “Tokayev urged a very cautious approach to expanding the powers of the EEC (Eurasian Economic Commission).” 2020. https://ria.ru/amp/20200519/1571668636.html. in Russian: [РИА Новости. “Токаев призвал очень осторожно подходить к расширению полномочий ЕЭК.” 2020. https://ria.ru/amp/20200519/1571668636.html].

    Satpayev, Dosym. “Kazakhstan’s withdrawal from the EAEU and the CSTO is a hostile step for Russia.” Azattyq Rýhy, 2022. https://rus.azattyq-ruhy.kz/society/37529-dosym-satpaev-vykhod-kazakhstana-%D0%B8z-eaes-i-odkb-dlia-rossii-vrazhdebnyi-shag. in Russian: [Сатпаев, Досым. “Выход Казахстана из ЕАЭС и ОДКБ для России — враждебный шаг.” Azattyq Rýhy, 2022. https://rus.azattyq-ruhy.kz/society/37529-dosym-satpaev-vykhod-kazakhstana-%D0%B8z-eaes-i-odkb-dlia-rossii-vrazhdebnyi-shag].

    Schweller, Randall L. “Bandwagoning for Profit: Bringing the Revisionist State Back In.” International Security 19, no. 1 (1994): 72–107.

    TransportCorridors.com. “Kazakhstan and China Have Agreed on Plans for Rail Transport for 2025.” February 5, 2025. https://www.transportcorridors.com/10599.

    Turkic Academy. Accessed November 13, 2025. https://turkicacademy.org/en.

    Turkic Investment Fund. “At a Glance.” 2025. https://turkicfund.org/about-us/.

    Turkic States Organization. “Samarkand Declaration of the Ninth Summit of the Organization of Turkic States.” Accessed November 13, 2025. https://www.turkicstates.org/u/d/basic-documents/ninth-summit-declarataion-16-en.

    U.S. Department of State. “Economic Resilience in Central Asia Initiative.” Accessed November 13, 2025. https://2021-2025.state.gov/economic-resilience-in-central-asia-initiative.

    U.S. Department of State. “Inaugural C5+1 Critical Minerals Dialogue among the United States and Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.” 2024. https://2021-2025.state.gov/inaugural-c51-critical-minerals-dialogue-among-the-united-states-and-kazakhstan-the-kyrgyz-republic-tajikistan-turkmenistan-and-uzbekistan/.

    UNESCO. Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions. Legal Affairs. Accessed November 13, 2025. https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/convention-protection-and-promotion-diversity-cultural-expressions.

    USAID Power Central Asia Activity. Public Annual Report 2023. January 2024. https://powercentralasia.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/PCA-Public-Annual-Report-2023_v2_comp.pdf.

    Walt, Stephen M. The Origins of Alliances. Cornell University Press, 1987.

    Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics. Addison-Wesley, 1979.

    World Bank. The Middle Trade and Transport Corridor: Policies and Investments to Triple Freight Volumes and Halve Travel Time by 2030. 2023. https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/eca/publication/middle-trade-and-transport-corridor.

    Yerimpasheva, Aida, and Hans-Christian Brauweiler. Global Gateway as a Tool for Sustainable Growth of Kazakhstan. Ordnungspolitische Diskurse, no. 2025-2. 2025. https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/320422/1/1929669313.pdf.

    ZONAkz. “Why Kazakhstan must leave the EAEU — Why Kazakhstan should not leave the EAEU.” April 11, 2022. https://zonakz.net/2022/04/11/pochemu-kazaxstanu-neobxodimo-vyjti-iz-eaes-pochemu-kazaxstanu-ne-vyjti-iz-eaes/. in Russian: [ZONAkz. «Почему Казахстану необходимо выйти из ЕАЭС» — «Почему Казахстану не выйти из ЕАЭС». 11 апреля 2022. https://zonakz.net/2022/04/11/pochemu-kazaxstanu-neobxodimo-vyjti-iz-eaes-pochemu-kazaxstanu-ne-vyjti-iz-eaes/].

  • Articles

    Geoeconomics, Connectivity, and Strategic Partnership: Iran and Armenia in Eurasia’s New Order

    Seyed Hassan Mirfakhraei
    View PDF
    Abstract

    The geoeconomics of Eurasia has been constantly evolving over the past decade. Various events have contributed to these changes, including the outbreak of war in Ukraine, sanctions on Russia’s geoeconomic infrastructure, shifts in the status of the Caspian Sea, and geopolitical developments in the South Caucasus. These transformations have created new conditions in Eurasian geoeconomic dynamics, prompting many stakeholders in the South Caucasus to redefine their geoeconomic roles. Iran’s new engagements in this field are defined within the framework of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). Armenia, as a neighboring country with extensive historical ties to Iran, is considered a key player in the South Caucasus and a strategic partner for Iran. Under the new regional conditions, and in response to emerging uncertainties, Armenia serves as an important and reliable access route, especially for Iran–Russia geoeconomic interactions. Trade opportunities and energy cooperation can further deepen these interactions. A strategic partnership offers a low-cost, long-term framework for advancing mutual interests. It must include specific conditions, focus on priority sectors, and align with the interests of Iran and Armenia, as well as broader regional trends.

    References

    Amir Ahmadian, Bahram, Habib Rezazadeh, and Ahmad Jorfi. “Analysis of Relations between Iran and Armenia in the Framework of Defensive Realism.” Central Eurasian Studies 9, no. 1 (2016): 31.

    Amiri, Mahdi, and Ehsan Fallahi. “Geopolynomics of Iran's Bilateral Relations with Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan from 2013 to 2021.” Central Eurasian Studies 15, no. 2 (2023): 82.

    Aslanbayli, Gulnara. “Connectivity Risks and Opportunities in the South Caucasus.” In Connectivity Risks and Opportunities in the South Caucasus, edited by Christoph Bilban, Elena Mandalenakis, and George Ni, 21–26. Vienna: National Defence Academy, 2025.

    Azar, Adel, and Karim Bayat. “Designing a Business Process-Centric Model with an Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) Approach.” Information Technology Management 1, no. 1 (2008): 7.

    Biró, Dávid, and László Vasa. “Unveiling the Strategic Significance of the Middle Corridor in Global Trade and Geopolitical Dynamics.” Economics: The Strategy and Practice 19, no. 2 (2024): 78.

    Danelia, Salome. “The Middle Corridor in Current Geopolitical Turbulence.” Canadian Journal of Research, Society and Development 1, no. 2 (2024): 6.

    Dinçer, Melih. “The Role of Azerbaijan as the EU’s Energy Supplier: A Secondary Alternative Partner in Natural Gas.” European Politics and Society 25, no. 4 (2024): 624.

    DiPirro, John. “A Greater Central Asia Strategy Without Russian Containment is Incomplete.” The Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst, May 14, 2025. https://www.cacianalyst.org/publications/analytical-articles/item/13867-a-greater-central-asia-strategy-without-russian-containment-is-incomplete.html.

    Falahati, Masoumeh, Rahmat Hajimineh, Afshin Zargar, and Armin Amin. “The Impact of the Karabakh Conflict on the Economic Security of the South Caucasus.” International Political Economy Studies 7, no. 2 (2025): 89–90.

    Gachechiladze, Revaz. “The Making of the South Caucasus Region: A Geographical Approach.” Environment and Society 14, no. 14 (2024): 175.

    Gawliczek, Piotr, and Khayal Iskandarov. “The Zangezur Corridor as Part of the Global Transport Route (Against the Backdrop of Power Games in the South Caucasus Region).” Security and Defence Quarterly 41, no. 1 (2023): 43.

    Gheysari, Nurollah, and Mahnaz Goodarzi. “Iran–Armenia Relations: Opportunities and Obstacles.” Central Eurasian Studies 2, no. 3 (2009): 130–31.

    Hedayati Shahidani, Mehdi, and Masoud Jabari Maleki. “Economic Relations between Iran and Armenia within the Framework of the Eurasian Economic Union.” Quarterly Journal of Political Commentary Knowledge 5, no. 17 (2023): 68.

    Hosseini, Seyed Mohsen, Arash Raesinezhad, and Mohsen Abbaszadeh Marzbani. “The Impact of Populism and Rentierism on the Geoeconomy of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.” International Quarterly of Geopolitics 21, no. 1 (2025): 275.

    Iran's Parliament Research Center. The Conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan and the Interests of the Islamic Republic of Iran (1). Tehran: Iran's Parliament Research Center, 2021.

    Kalkschmied, Katja. “China's Infrastructure Investment in the South Caucasus before and after Russia's Invasion of Ukraine.” Caucasus Analytical Digest 132 (2023): 7–8.

    Karapetyan, Roman. “South Caucasus in the Phase of Russian-Ukrainian War: New Security Challenges and Possible Scenarios for Development.” Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University 2, no. 3 (2023): 41.

    Kasım, Kamer. “The Impact of Azerbaijan-Turkmenistan Energy Cooperation on the Caspian Energy Security.” Abant Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 21, no. 3 (2021): 951–52.

    Kavtaradze, Elguja. “Armenia and Azerbaijan in a Geopolitical Battle: Zangezur Corridor.” International Scientific Journal “The Caucasus and the World” 29 (2024): 127.

    Kolaee, Elaheh, and Seyed Mehdi Hosseini Taghiabad. “Iran’s Science Diplomacy in Its Relations with Armenia.” Central Asia and Caucasus Journal 25, no. 108 (2020): 175.

    Koolaee, Elaheh, and Mahnaz Goodarzi. “The Effect of Normalization of Armenia-Turkey Relations on Armenia-Iran Relations.” International Quarterly of Geopolitics 11, no. 37 (2015): 44.

    Kurecic, Petar. “Geoeconomic and Geopolitical Conflicts: Outcomes of the Geopolitical Economy in a Contemporary World.” World Review of Political Economy 6, no. 4 (2015): 523.

    Lee, Julian, and Yelena Kalyuzhnova. “Trans-Caspian Transport Corridor Infrastructure: Oil and Gas Pipelines.” In Unlocking Transport Connectivity in the Trans-Caspian Corridor, edited by Dina Azhgaliyeva and Yelena Kalyuzhnova, 43–69. Chiyoda: Asian Development Bank Institute, 2021.

    Mahdian, Hossein, and Sirus Fakhri. “Iran’s Energy Geopolitics and West Energy Security.” Human Geography Research 44, no. 4 (2012): 48.

    Mahdokht, Matin, and Ali Saberi. Energy Situation in Armenia and Its Exchanges with Iran. Tehran: Iran's Parliament Research Center, 2023.

    Meister, Stefan. “The End of Russian Hegemony: A New Transactional Order Arises in the South Caucasus.” DGAP Analysis 10 (2024): 5.

    Mirfakhraei, Seyed Hassan, and Omid Rahimi. “Strategic Partnership; A New Pattern for Iran-Russia Relations.” International Relations Research Quarterly 7, no. 25 (2018): 69–70.

    Moshfegh, Zahra. “Strategies for Developing Economic Relations with Armenia.” Economic Security 10 (2022): 24.

    Naseri, Ali, and Abolfazl Shakoori. “Iran and the Geopolitics of Zangezzor Corridor.” Central Asia and Caucasus 30, no. 125 (2024): 83.

    Nesirova, Aynur. “Economic Results of the Karabakh War: Plundering in the Territories of Azerbaijan During the Occupation Period.” International Journal of Management Academy 5, no. 2 (2022): 263–64.

    Nezamabadi, Mohsen. “Cultural Relations between Iran and Armenia, Capacities and Potentials.” Cultural Studies and Communication 12, no. 43 (2016): 80–82.

    Pascual, Carlos. The New Geopolitics of Energy. New York: University of Columbia, 2015.

    Paul, Amanda. “The EU in the South Caucasus and the Impact of the Russia-Ukraine War.” The International Spectator 50, no. 3 (2015): 40.

    Pietkiewicz, Michał. “Legal Status of Caspian Sea – Problem Solved?” Marine Policy 123 (2021): 6.

    Scholvin, Sören, and Mikael Wigell. “Geo-Economics as Concept and Practice in International Relations.” FIIA 102 (2018): 5.

    Shokri Kalehsar, Omid. US Energy Diplomacy in the Caspian Sea Basin: Changing Trends since 2001. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2021.

    Tadevosyan, Suren. “A Small State with Growing Influence: Balancing Azerbaijan in Global Energy Policy.” Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University 3, no. 3(9) (2024): 34–49. https://doi.org/10.46991/JOPS/2024.3.9.034.

    Torosian, Raymond, Ali Asghar Esmaeil Pourroshan, and Mahnaz Parvzai. “Geopolitical Developments in the Caucasus on the Relations between Iran and Armenia.” Quarterly of Geography and Regional Planning 13, no. 51 (2023): 10.

    Trade Map. “Bilateral Trade between Armenia and Iran, Islamic Republic of.” 2024. https://www.trademap.org/Bilateral_TS.aspx.

    Wang, Xue, Debin Du, and Yan Peng. “Assessing the Importance of the Marine Chokepoint: Evidence from Tracking the Global Marine Traffic.” Sustainability 16, no. 1 (2024): 385–86.

    Wellesley, Laura, Felix Preston, Johanna Lehne, and Rob Bailey. “Chokepoints in Global Food Trade: Assessing the Risk.” Research in Transportation Business & Management 25 (2017): 15–38.

    Yepremyan, Tigran. “United States-Iran Relations: Security Implications for Armenia and Beyond.” Bulletin of Yerevan University D: International Relations and Political Sciences 1 (December 2022): 50–79. https://doi.org/10.46991/BYSU:D/2022.sp1.050.

  • Articles

    International North–South Transport Corridor: A Renewed Horizon of Trade Connectivity Between India and Russia

    Sandeep Tripathi, Urvashi Singh
    View PDF
    Abstract

    In the context of shifting geopolitical alignments and evolving regional strategies, Indo-Russian trade relations are entering a new phase of strategic relevance. This paper examines the potential of the International North–South Transport Corridor (INSTC) as both an instrument for enhancing bilateral trade and a broader geopolitical lever. Two central questions guide the analysis: first, how the INSTC can redefine the scale, efficiency, and scope of economic exchange between India and Russia; and second, how it may influence regional power dynamics amid growing global fragmentation. As Western powers increasingly employ trade as a tool of political coercion, and Russia seeks to recalibrate its international partnerships, the INSTC emerges as a critical avenue for fostering strategic autonomy and connectivity. Beyond its economic utility, the corridor reflects a shared ambition to challenge existing power asymmetries and reinforce multipolarity. This study situates the INSTC within a wider set of developments, including China’s expanding footprint, India’s commitment to a rules-based international order, ongoing geopolitical tensions, and Russia’s pursuit of a rebalanced global security architecture. Against this backdrop, a careful reassessment of the INSTC’s strategic value is necessary to understand its implications for the future of Eurasian connectivity and order.

    References

    Agarwal, Rajeev. "The Role of Iran in India’s Strategic Outreach in West Asia." Observer Research Foundation, 2024. https://www.orfonline.org/research/the-role-of-iran-in-india-s-strategic-outreach-in-west-asia.

    ANI. "Kyrgyzstan Conference Stresses on Importance of INSTC and Chabahar Port as Alternative to BRI." The Print, October 24, 2022. https://theprint.in/world/kyrgyzstan-conference-stresses-on-importance-of-instc-and-chabahar-port-as-alternative-to-bri/1180383.

    Bhardwaj, Naina. "India’s Opportunities along the International North–South Transport." India Briefing, 2022. https://www.indiabriefing.com/news/indias-export-opportunities-along-the-international-north-south-transport-corridor-22412.html.

    Chaudhury, Dipanjan Roy. "Putin Pushes INSTC to Connect India; Describes It as a ‘Truly Ambitious Project’." The Economic Times, July 1, 2022. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/putin-pushes-instc-to-connect-india-describes-it-as-a-truly-ambitious-project/articleshow/92582524.cms.

    Embassy of India, Moscow. "Brief on India–Russia Economic Relations." 2023. https://indianembassy-moscow.gov.in/overview.php.

    Eurasian Economic Commission (EEC). "Decision No. 14 of the Supreme Eurasian Economic Council dated December 26, 2016 ‘On the Beginning of Negotiations with the Republic of India on Concluding an Agreement on a Free Trade Area’." Accessed December 2025. https://eec.eaeunion.org/en/comission/department/dotp/torgovye-soglasheniya/india.php.

    European Commission. "EU Support to the Europe-Caucasus-Asia Transport Corridor." MEMO/12/141. Brussels, February 28, 2012. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/api/files/document/print/en/memo_12_141/MEMO_12_141_EN.pdf.

    Fazal-e-Haider, Syed. "INSTC vs. BRI: The India–China Competition over the Port of Chabahar and Infrastructure in Asia." The Jamestown Foundation: Global Research & Analysis 21, no. 19 (2022). https://jamestown.org/program/instc-vs-bri-the-india-china-competition-over-the-port-of-chabahar-and-infrastructure-in-asia.

    IANS. "India Quietly Counters China's BRI with 7,200 km Transport Corridor." ET Infra, May 1, 2023. https://infra.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/roads-highways/india-quietly-counters-chinas-bri-with-7200-km-transport-corridor/99905482.

    Intueri Consulting. International North–South Transit Corridor (INSTC) Impact Analysis. October 23, 2022. https://intueriglobal.com/international-north-south-transit-corridor-instc-impact-analysis.

    Kasturi, Charu Sudan. "Is the INSTC Russia’s New Economic Escape Route?" Al Jazeera, July 27, 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2022/7/27/russias-new-economic-escape-route.

    Kondapalli, Srikanth. "Perception and Strategic Reality in India-China Relations." In The New Great Game: China and South and Central Asia in the Era of Reform, edited by Thomas Fingar, 93–115. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2016.

    Lakshminarayanan, Radhika, and Tigran Yepremyan. "Armenia-India Partnership: Geopolitical and Geo-Economic Implications in the Eurasian Context." Asia Europe Journal 21 (2023): 81–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10308-023-00665-x.

    Levina, Neythiri. "Checkmating Chinese BRI through INSTC." Chanakya Forum, July 5, 2022. https://chanakyaforum.com/checkmating-chinese-bri-through-instc.

    Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India. "Trade Statistics." Accessed December 2025. https://www.commerce.gov.in/trade-statistics/.

    Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. "Remarks by External Affairs Minister, Dr. S. Jaishankar at the India-Russia Business Dialogue." April 17, 2023. https://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/36496.

    Panda, Jagannath. "Revitalizing INSTC: Analyzing Geopolitical Realignments and the China Factor." Institute for Security & Development Policy, February 2023. https://www.isdp.eu/publication/revitalizing-instc-analyzing-geopolitical-realignments-and-the-china-factor.

    Parepa, Laura-Anca. "The Belt and Road Initiative as Continuity in Chinese Foreign Policy." Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies 9, no. 2 (2020): 175–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/24761028.2020.1848370.

    Press Information Bureau. "English Translation of Address by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi at the Plenary Session of the Eastern Economic Forum 2022." September 7, 2022. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1857404.

    Rogers, David. "Iran’s Railway Revolution." Global Construction Review, December 14, 2015. http://www.globalconstructionreview.com/markets/howislamic-republic-set-become-land-br8i8d8ge.

    Sahakyan, Mher. "Rebuilding Interconnections: Russia, India and the International North–South Transport Corridor." AsiaGlobal Online, September 17, 2020. https://hal.science/hal-02980041v1/document.

    Sharma, Vaishali Basu. "The Political Economics of the International North–South Transport Corridor." The Wire, June 30, 2022. https://thewire.in/world/political-economics-international-north-south-transport-corridor-india-iran-russia.

    Swarajya Staff. "‘Truly Ambitious Project’: Putin Pitches 7,200 km Long INSTC as ‘Transport Artery’ Connecting Russia to India via Iran." Swarajya, July 1, 2022. https://swarajyamag.com/business/truly-ambitious-project-putin-pitches-7200-km-long-inst-corridor-as-transport-artery-connecting-russia-to-india-via-iran.

    United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. Declaration Adopted by the Second International Euro-Asian Conference on Transport. September 12–13, 2000. https://unece.org/DAM/trans/doc/cd/peter2e.pdf.

    Unnikrishnan, Nandan, and Nivedita Kapoor. "India–Russia Relations in a Post-Covid World." Raisina Debate, March 1, 2021. https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/india-russia-relations-in-a-post-covid-world.

    Vinokurov, Evgeny, Arman Ahunbaev, and Alexander I. Zaboeva. "International North–South Transport Corridor: Boosting Russia’s ‘Pivot to the South’ and Trans-Eurasian Connectivity." Russian Journal of Economics 8, no. 2 (2022): 59–173. https://doi.org/10.32609/j.ruje.8.86617.

Discussion Article

Book Review

View All Issues